TITLE:
Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss
SOURCE: Grand Rounds Presentation, UTMB, Dept. of Otolaryngology
DATE: June 13, 2001
RESIDENT PHYSICIAN: Christopher Muller,
MD
FACULTY PHYSICIAN: Jeffrey Vrabec,
MD
SERIES EDITOR: Francis B. Quinn, Jr., MD
"This material was
prepared by resident physicians in partial fulfillment of educational
requirements established for the Postgraduate Training Program of the UTMB
Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery and was not intended for
clinical use in its present form. It was prepared for the purpose of
stimulating group discussion in a conference setting. No warranties, either
express or implied, are made with respect to its accuracy, completeness, or
timeliness. The material does not necessarily reflect the current or past
opinions of members of the UTMB faculty and should not be used for purposes of
diagnosis or treatment without consulting appropriate literature sources and
informed professional opinion."
Sudden hearing loss (SHL) is a medical emergency for
which definitive diagnosis and treatment is still largely unknown. It was first described in the literature by
De Klevn in 1944. SHL generally a
refers to hearing loss of sensorineural origin. It has been defined for research purposes and has been accepted
by most authorities as 30 dB or more sensorineural hearing loss over at least
three contiguous audiometric frequencies occurring within 3 days or less.
Estimates report approximately 15,000 reported cases
of SHL per year worldwide with 4000 of those occurring in the United
States. One in every 10,000 to 15,000
people will suffer from this condition, with the highest incidence occurs
between 50 and 60 years of age. The
lowest incidence is between 20 and 30 years of age. Of the patient suffering from SHL, 2% are bilateral. In most
series, the incidence was nearly equal in men and women.
There are many potential causes of SHL, but despite
extensive evaluation, the majority of cases elude definitive diagnosis and
therefore, remain idiopathic. Reports
estimate that the etiology of SHL is diagnosed in only 10% of cases. Suggested causes of idiopathic sudden
sensorineural hearing loss (ISSNHL) include viral infections, immunologic,
vascular compromise, and intracochlear membrane breaks. It is unlikely that any single one of these
pathophysiologic processes explains all cases of ISSNHL. Treatment regimens aimed at addressing the
underlying problem in each of these states have been suggested including
decreasing cochlear inflammation, improving inner ear blood flow and
oxygenation, and reestablishing the endocochlear potential.
The etiology of SHL can be
broken down into broad categories: (1) viral and infectious, (2) autoimmune,
(3) labyrinthine membrane rupture/traumatic, (4) vascular, (5) neurologic, and
(6) Neoplastic. There are multiple
conditions within each of these categories that have been associated with
sudden hearing loss. The following is a
partial list of reported causes of SHL:
Herpesvirus
(simplex, zoster, varicella, cytomegalovirus0
Mumps
Human
immunodeficiency virus
Lassa fever
Mycoplasma
Cryptococcal
meningitis
Toxoplasmosis
Syphilis
Rubeola
Rubella
Human
spumaretrovirus
Autoimmune Autoimmune
inner ear disease (AIED)
Ulcerative
colitis
Relapsing
polychondritis
Lupus
erythematosus
Polyarteritis
nodosa
Cogan’s
syndrome
Traumatic Perilymph fistula
Inner ear
decompression sickness
Temporal
bone fracture
Inner ear
concussion
Otologic
surgery (stapedectomy)
Surgical
complication of nonotologic surgery
Vascular Vascular
disease/alteration of microcirculation
Vascular disease associated
with mitochondriopathy
Vertebrobasilar
insufficiency
Red blood
cell deformability
Sickle cell
disease
Cardiopulmonary
bypass
Neurologic Multiple sclerosis
Focal
pontine ischemia
Migraine
Neoplastic Acoustic
neuroma
Leukemia
Myeloma
Metastasis
to internal auditory canal
Meningeal
carcinomatosis
Contralateral
deafness after acoustic neuroma surgery
Evaluation and management of SHL should be considered medically urgent, if not an emergency. The primary goal is to rule out any treatable causes.
Diagnostic evaluation of the patient with sudden hearing loss begins with a thorough history and physical exam. Details of the circumstances surrounding the hearing loss and the time course of its onset should be elicited. Associated symptoms, such as tinnitus, vertigo or dizziness, and aural fullness should also be asked about. Clinical experience has shown that about one-third of patients note their hearing loss upon first awakening in the morning, and that about one- half the cases will have associated vertigo. Patients should also be questioned about previous otologic surgery, ototoxic drug use, and previous or concurrent viral or upper respiratory tract infections. Any history of trauma, straining, diving, flying, and intense noise exposure should be noted. Past medical history of other diseases associated with sudden hearing loss should also be obtained such as diabetes, autoimmune disorders, malignancies, neurologic conditions (multiple sclerosis), and hypercoagulable states. African-Americans should be asked about sickle cell disease.
A complete head and neck exam should
be performed on all patients with sudden hearing loss. More often than not, the exam will be
unremarkable, however, any processes such as middle ear effusions, infections,
cholesteatoma, and cerumen impaction should be excluded. A thorough neurological exam including Weber
and Rinne, cerebellar and vestibular testing should be performed.
An audiogram (pure tone, speech, tympanometry, including stapedial reflex testing) should be performed on all patients with sudden hearing loss. The audiogram is the foundation of the diagnosis and provides prognostic information. Serial testing provides documentation of the progression or resolution of the hearing loss and response to treatment. In addition it may help exclude patients with secondary gain or with pseudohypacusis.
The
following is a list of laboratory studies that can be ordered. Initial screening tests should be directed
based on history and suspected conditions.
1)
Complete
blood count (CBC)
2)
Erythrocyte
sedimentation rate (ESR)
3)
Glucose
4)
Cholesterol/triglycerides
5)
T3,
T4, TSH
6)
PT,
PTT
7)
VDRL,
RTA-ABS (MHA-TP)
8)
HIV
9)
Lyme
titer
Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) is recommended by the majority of authors for patients
with asymmetric hearing loss. In one
survey of 79 otolaryngologists, 38% would order imaging on the patient’s
initial visit. MRI is useful in
evaluating for acoustic tumors, multiple sclerosis and cerebrovascular
accidents. There are some proponents of
following these patients and imaging only if asymmetric hearing persists. However, Berg et al., in a series of acoustic neuromas showed that 13% presented
with sudden hearing loss, and of these 23% recovered auditory function.
Cogan's syndrome (CS) is an
autoimmune disease of the cornea and vestibuloauditory apparatus that was first
described by Cogan, an ophthalmologist, in the 1940s. It occurs primarily in young adults (average age of onset 22-29
years) and typically presents with interstitial keratitis (IK) and
Meniere's-like attacks of vertigo, ataxia, tinnitus, nausea, vomiting, and
hearing loss which develop within several months of each other. CS may also be associated with other
systemic manifestations of the inflammatory process such as Takayasu's-like or
medium-sized vessel vasculitis.
Approximately 10% of patients develop aortitis within weeks to years
after the onset. Hearing fluctuation in
CS coincides with disease exacerbations and remissions. Its course often culminates in
deafness. One series reported that 12
out of 18 patients (67%) developed bilateral deafness.
The cause of CS is unknown. Microbial etiology has been suggested by
some as URTI precede nearly 40% of patients who present with this disease. Clinical parallels between syphilis and CS
have led some to belief that CS may be caused by Borrelia burgdorferi. However, evidence so far has been
inconclusive. There have also been
links to Chlamydia species with CS and is an area of ongoing
investigation. Temporal bone
histopathologic studies done at autopsy of patients with CS are characterized
by chronic inflammation including: infiltration of the spiral ligament with
lymphocytes and plasma cells, endolymphatic hydrops, degenerative changes in
the organ of Corti, and demyelination and atrophy of the vestibular and
cochlear branches of the eight cranial nerve.
There is no criteria currently
established for the diagnosis of CS.
The general thinking is that the diagnosis requires clinical signs of
both eye and inner ear inflammation.
Work-up should include an audiogram and laboratory tests including CBC,
ESR, and RPR. Imaging including MRI
and/or CT should be done primarily to rule out cerebropontine angle tumors and
other disorders. MRI may show enhancement of vestibular and cochlear structures
with gadolinium.
The cornerstone of therapy is
corticosteroids: topical for IK and oral
for vestibuloauditory involvement. Most
authors suggest using prednisone 1mg/kg for 2-4 weeks with a subsequent rapid
taper for cases of complete resolution and slow taper for those with incomplete
response. The best outcome is in
patients in whom therapy begins shortly after the onset of symptoms. For patients who have failed steroid
treatment and developed bilateral deafness, cochlear implantation should be
considered and has been approved by the FDA in these patients.
Traumatic breaks in the membranous labyrinth are accepted causes of
sudden hearing loss. Cochlear membrane
breaks may be either intracochlear, as is thought to occur in Meniere’s
disease, or involve the labyrinthine oval and/or round windows with a resultant
perilymph fistula. The patients history
will usually elicit an inciting event such as a blow to the head, sneezing,
bending over, lifting a heavy object, exposure to sudden changes in barometric
pressure (such as during flying or diving), or exposure to a loud noise. Patients who are theoretically at high risk
for fistulization are those who have undergone anatomical alterations such as
stapedectomy patients and in children with inner ear anomalies, such as the
Mondini malformation and large vestibular aqueducts where increases in CSF
pressure may be transmitted to the inner ear more easily. In clinical practice, however, patients who
have undergone stapedectomy who return to their normal lifestyles including
scuba diving and flying have not resulted in an obvious increase in development
of symptoms of perilymphatic fistulas.
Currently there is no definitive test to diagnose perilymph fistulae other than intraoperative observation of leakage of perilymph. Diagnosis is made by the clinical history of sudden or rapidly progressive hearing loss after one of the above listed inciting events. Inflammation, granuloma, or neoplasia disorders that can mimic a perilymph fistula should be ruled out (i.e. with MRI, MHATP, and ESR). Kohut proposes that two of the following vestibular symptoms are required for diagnosis: constant dysequilibrium, a positive fistula test (Hennebert’s sign), and a positional nystagmus. Testing for Tullio’s phenomenon should also be done.
Initial treatment should include 5 days of strict bed rest with the head of bed elevated thirty degrees. The patient should avoid straining or hard nose blowing. Stool softeners may be given. Some suggest daily audiograms. If the patient has improvement, 6 more weeks of modified physical activity should be followed. If no improvement is seen after five days, surgical therapy including middle ear exploration with patching of the perilymphatic fistula should be performed.
Neoplastic
Acoustic neuromas are usually associated with gradually progressive
hearing loss. However, the increasingly
widespread use of CT and MRI imaging of patients has indicated that nearly 10%
to 19% of patients with acoustic tumors may present with SHL. The rationale for imaging patients with
unilateral hearing loss, accepted by most authorities is that, although
uncommon, their symptoms may be due to neoplasm. It has been estimated that 1% of patients with asymmetric SHL
will have an acoustic tumor. In
addition, these imaging studies can pick other neurologic disorders such as
multiple sclerosis and ischemic changes which may be associated with SHL.
Direct identification of
viruses or viral antigens from the perilymph of a affected patients provides
some of the strongest evidence for the involvement of viruses in hearing
loss. Also, animal studies that
demonstrate the ability of viruses to infect the inner ear lend further
support. Davis and Johnson demonstrated
the ability of rubeola and mumps to infect the inner ears of animal models
using immunofluorescent antigen studies.
Westmore et. al. subsequently
cultured the mumps virus from the perilymph of a patient suffering from SHL and in 1979, Davis and co-workers
cultured CMV from the perilymph of infant with congenital CMV infection. In 1981, further studies using
immunofluorescence showed CMV antigens on the stria vascularis, dark cells and
Reissner’s membrane of an infant who died of a CMV infection.
The diagnosis of AIED is
based for the most part on the presence of bilateral progressive sensorineural
hearing loss and response to therapy.
Hughes proposes that the two most clinically helpful tests for diagnosing
AIED are the lymphocyte transformation test (LTT) and the Western blot
immunoassay, however, these are rarely used by most practitioners because of
availability. The sensitivity and
specificity for LTT are estimated to be 50-80% and 93% respectively with
positive predictive values ranging from 56-73% depending on the disease
prevalence in the tested population.
When applied to high risk populations (patients with bilateral
rapidly-progressive SNHL), the Western blot has a sensitivity of 88%, a
specificity of 80%, and an overall positive predictive value of 92%. The
natural history of AIED is not known, however, clinical experience reveals that
the disease waxes and wanes. Testing of
patients should, therefore, be performed during periods of disease activity and
before treatment is initiated.
Currently, tests for AIED
are not routinely used except at certain centers (Cleveland Clinic and the
Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary) and in experimental trials. The major drawback to these studies is the
lack of availability. If testing is
desired, samples of whole blood from patients can be mailed to the Cleveland
Clinic Foundation Regional Laboratory by overnight carrier for LTT. The test costs $120.00 and results take
approximately seven days.
The best theoretical test for AIED
would be a test for marker specific for AIED.
Attempts have been made in this area and are promising. In 1990, Harris and colleagues published the
results of studies which discovered, using Western blot, an anti-68kd
autoantibody in the sera of patients with rapidly progressive SNHL. Since then, other studies have confirmed
these findings. Overall 22% to 58% of
sera of patients with rapidly progressive SNHL will contain this antibody. Harris has subsequently reported a 94%
specificity for test correlating results with responsiveness to therapy and
disease activity. Studies by Billings
and Harris are now searching for the specific antigen involved in AIED. So far they have isolated a 68kd protein
that is ubiquitous in the inner as well as other areas of the body, and have
recently reported evidence that links the 68kd antigen with heat shock protein
70 (hsp 70), a highly inducible stress protein. Further research is needed in this are to determine the exact
relationship of hsp 70 to AIED and whether it plays an important etiologic role
or whether it is just a bi-product of the disease itself. Theories proposed are that (1) human hsp 70
may have a similar amino acid sequence to an infecting agent resulting in
cross-reactivity or (2) that there may be a hsp 70 specific to the inner ear
that is seen as foreign when it is over-expressed during times of chronic
inflammation from an outside agent.
Treatment for AIED is
controversial and widely varied from practitioner to practitioner. This is largely due to the lack of
double-blind, prospective clinical trials on the matter. The general consensus is that steroids are
effective and should be used. Most
sources recommend prednisone 1mg/kg/day for 4 weeks followed by a slow taper if
the patient responds. If the patient
relapses on the taper, Harris recommends instituting high dose prednisone and
if continued recurrence occurs with tapering, a cytotoxic agent such as
methotrexate (MTX) at a dosage of 7.5-15 mg weekly with folic acid, or
cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) should be instituted. If MTX is used, the steroids should be continued after starting
the MTX as it takes one to two months for the prednisone sparing affects of MTX
to begin. Most physicians begin with
MTX as it has fewer side-effects than Cytoxan.
If both prednisone and MTX are ineffective, cytoxan should be used. It is important to monitor for side effects
of both MTX and Cytoxan with routine monitoring of complete blood counts,
platelets, LFTs, UA, and electrolytes.
Those on Cytoxan should keep well-hydrated to prevent hemorrhagic
cystitis.
Other authors such as McCabe are more in favor of starting cytotoxic drugs at the onset of the illness. He believes that Cytoxan is the preferred treatment of AIED rather than steroids because there is a higher response rate to this drug. Because the diagnosis of AIED is based partially on response to therapy, fewer patients with this diagnosis would be missed.
It is not surprising that
the cochleovestibular blood supply may be affected by circulatory disorders
such as embolic phenomenon, thrombosis, vasospasm, and hypercoagulable or high
viscosity states resulting in SSNHL.
The underlying pathophysiology can be explained by the occurrence of
sudden anoxic injury to the cochlea. The cochlea is extraordinarily intolerant of blood supply
disruptions. Early studies by Kimura
and Perlman in the1957 revealed that vascular occlusion of the labyrinthine artery
in guinea pigs for greater than thirty minutes led to irreversible loss of cochlear
function. Suga and co-workers performed
experimental embolizations of cochlear vessels and showed loss of cochlear
action potentials within 60 seconds.
Much of the hard evidence for a
vascular etiology of SHL comes from histopathologic comparison of a few human
temporal bones with those of animal models.
Belal, in 1980, looked at two temporal bones from patients suffering
from SHL. He found similar histologic
findings to those of animal models of vascular occlusion to the
cochleovestibular apparatus including extensive fibrosis and new bone
formation.
The blood supply of the membranous
labyrinth is predominantly derived from he labyrinthine (internal artery) which
is branch of the anterior inferior cerebellar artery. It may less commonly be a direct branch from the basilar
artery. The labyrinthine artery enters
the internal auditory canal and subsequently divides into the common cochlear
artery and the anterior vestibular
artery. The common cochlear artery
divides to form the main cochlear and vestibulocochlear branches. Division of the vestibulocochlear artery
results in the posterior vestibular artery and the cochlear ramus. The arterial supply to the cochlea is such
that the basal turn is fed first by the main cochlear artery with the cochlear
apex fed last. Based on this anatomy
one would expect occlusion of the labyrinthine artery to cause both vestibular
and auditory symptoms which is supported by histopathologic findings as
describe above. In addition, one would
expect temporary occlusion in blood flow to affect low frequency areas of the
cochlea first as these areas are the most distal in terms of blood supply.
SHL can develop as a result of a number abnormal circulatory states. Patients with diseases such a sickle cell anemia and Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia have been shown to have a higher risk of developing SHL than the normal population. Hearing loss in these individuals is usually reversible with treatment: Oxygen for sickle cell disease and plasmapheresis for Waldenstrom's. Strokes involving the anterior inferior cerebellar artery are associated with auditory and vestibular symptoms but often also affect cerebellar function. SHL following cardiopulmonary bypass has also been reported, most likely resulting from embolic phenomenon.
The majority of cases of SHL
treated by otolaryngologist are for those with no definable cause. The treatments for cases with known
etiologies involve addressing the underlying condition (i.e. treatment of:
acoustic neuroma with excision, ototoxicity with cessation of ototoxic drugs,
multiple sclerosis with medical therapy, embolic disease with anticoagulants,
sickle-cell crisis with oxygen, bacterial meningitis with antibiotics and so
on). This discussion will be limited to
the treatments which have been proposed for patients with no underlying cause
for their hearing loss based on the previous mentioned theories addressing the
etiology of ISSNHL.
Prostaglandin
Methotrexate
Diuretics Hydochlorothiazide/triamterene
Furosemide
Antiviral
agents Acyclovir
Valacyclovir
Vasodilators 5%
carbon dioxide with 95% oxygen
(Carbogen)
Papaverine
Buphenine
(nylidrin)
Naftidrofuryl
(nafronyl)
Thymoxamine
Prostacyclin
Nicotinic
acid
Pentoxifylline
Volume
expanders/hemodilutors Hydroxyethyl
starch
Low-molecular-weight
dextran
Defibrinogenators Batroxobin
Calcium
antagonists Nifedipine
Other
agents and procedures Amidotrizoate
Acupunture
Iron
Vitamins
Procaine
A
review of the literature confirms that the level of evidence for treating this
condition is limited and consequently there is a wide disparity in consultant’s
practices.
In 1987, Wilkins and associates treated 109 with a
“shotgun” regimen that included dextran, histamine, Hypaque, diuretics,
steroids, vasodilators, and carbogen inhalation. They found no statistically significant difference in outcome
between patients treated and those who were not treated. In this study there was no control group and
treatment was defined as receiving the drug for at least three days. Prospective, randomized, double-blind
studies have been done looking at the dextran 40, pentoxifylline, low-molecular-weight
dextran, and intravenous procaine. None
of these have shown significant differences in recovery compared to
placebo.
Despite the disappointing results in early trials of
steroid therapy in which low doses were used for short duration, later studies
using higher doses for longer periods of time have been more promising in the
treatment of ISSNHL. In 1980, Wilson
and colleagues performed double-blind studies for the treatment of ISSNHL with
oral steroids. Their treatment consisted of a Decadron taper over 10-12 days.
They stratified their patients based on audiogram and found that steroids had a
significant effect on the recovery of hearing in patients with hearing loss
between 40 and 90 db. Moskowitz et al. confirmed Wilson’s findings in
1984. He demonstrated an overall 89%
recovery rate for those treated with a twelve day Decadron taper compared with
44% recovery for those not treated with steroids. Again, these results were found in a patients with audiograms in
the so called "steroid effective zone". In both of these studies, they found that patients with profound
hearing loss did not benefit significantly from steroid use. They concluded that steroid appear to be of
benefit only if the injury is partial and reversible. In a recent review by Hughes, he recommended treating with
prednisone 1mg/kg/day for at least ten days and up to one month.
Hughes also advocates treatment with diuretics and
low salt diet. Athough there is no data
to support this treatment, his rationale is based on histopathologic studies of
temporal bones in patients with autoimmune SHL (mostly Cogan's syndrome) which
have shown endolymphatic hydrops. He
prescribes Maxide (Hydrochlorthiazide 25mg and triamterene) once a day.
Carbogen, which is a combination of 95% oxygen and
5% carbon dioxide has been used, and is still used by some physicians in
patients in whom a vascular etiology is suspected for their hearing loss. Studies have shown that carbogen increases
the partial pressure of oxygen in perilymph.
In addition carbon dioxide is a known potent vasodilator of the
vestibulocochlear vasculature, resulting in increased blood flow. Administration of Carbogen must be done
in-hospital over three days to monitor blood pressure which may increase. Insurance companies currently do not cover
this treatment because it is considered experimental. No conclusive data has shown Carbogen inhalation to be of any
benefit over spontaneous recovery .
Finally, antivirals have recently come into favor in
the treatment of ISSNHL. Animal models
of viral labyrinthitis treated with prednisone and acyclovir combined have
shown significantly higher rates of hearing recovery compared to either drug
alone. This combination therapy has
already proven its effectiveness in Ramsay Hunt syndrome and herpes zoster
oticus and has also been proposed for the treatment of Bell's palsy. Studies are now ongoing to look at the
efficacy of acyclovir in the treatment of patients with ISSNHL. In general, many authorities treat patients
empirically with acyclovir usually for ten days.
Recently, a survey was sent to 100 consultant
otolaryngologists in the United Kingdom inquiring about their assessment and
management of patients presenting with SHL.
Results showed that 78% would perform routine blood tests including CBC,
ESR, and syphilis serology. 38% would
order an MRI at the first presentation. 98.5% of the consultants would treat
with steroids alone or as part of a combination. 41% treat with Carbogen, 31% with acyclovir and 35% with
betahistine.
Sudden hearing loss is a
medical condition which can be particularly devastating to patients and
frustrating for the otolaryngologist to diagnose and treat. Despite extensive investigation, only
minimal data has been generated in the past thirty years to improve our
understanding of the etiology and appropriate treatment of this disease. Most authorities agree that all patients
should undergo audiometry, and imaging with MRI for those patients with
asymmetric hearing loss, however the etiology for the majority of patients will
go undiagnosed. Treatment is more
controversial. Steroids have been shown to significantly improve hearing
recovery in patients with moderate to severe hearing loss and seem to be
favored for the treatment of autoimmune and idiopathic forms of SSNHL. The remainder of proposed treatments for
this disease are based, for the most part, on theory and will require further
investigation to confirm or disprove their efficacy.
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